1. Overview
 

2. Geology and geography

2.1 General
Borkum is the most westerly and the largest of the East Frisian Islands. Like Juist, Norderney, Baltrum, Langeoog, Spiekeroog and Wangerooge it belongs to the group of barrier islands whose origin and development are influenced by the waves and the tide. In order to prevent the islands from shifting eastwards, their western ends are stabilised by groins and bank stabilisations/beach walls. Unlike the other East Frisian Islands which have the protective mudflats to their rear, Borkum is sited in the mouth of the river Ems, north of the Netherlands coast and Lower Saxony, between the West Frisian Island of Rottumeroog (Netherlands) and the East Frisian Islands of Juist, Memmert with Kachelot-Plate and Lüttje Hörn (Lower Saxony). The island and the bordering mudflat belong to the national park Niedersächsisches Wattenmeer.
It is assumed that Borkum and the other East Frisian Islands developed from a Geest core which rose above the mudflats and promoted the agglomeration of sediments. The Geest core in the North Frisian Islands, which also developed during the ice ages, is still preserved.
Another influencing factor in the development of the East Frisian Islands is the Average High Tide (2.4 m) which is typical for the region and also promoted the agglomeration of the sediments and the development of the dune island. Once the island had risen above the high tide level the development of sand drifts and colonisation by plants became possible.

2.2 Present landscape
The island of Borkum, with its sandy beaches in front of the dunes on the seaward side and the Randzel Mudflat to the mainland, rises to an average height of 6m over sea level. Like all the East Frisian Islands Borkum is located over a freshwater lens which is fed by rain water. There is also a freshwater lake which was created in the course of the construction of the sea dyke.
The Binnengroden (island marshes) in particular have an important role for agriculture on the island. Unlike all the other East Frisian Islands, only Borkum had sufficient farm land for its needs, today however this is only used as a sideline for the local market. The current economic basis is tourism and during high seasons Borkum can even assume an almost “town-like” character.
Until 1863 Borkum consisted of two islands, the Westland and the Eastland, which were separated by a tidal creek. The Tüskendör (“In between“) still indicates this old division. In the west of the island there is the Greune Stee (“green spot“). This is a large birch and alder tree grove traversed by dunes which was planted at the beginning of the 20th century on the initiative of the head of the Heimatverein (Society for the Conservation of Local Traditions).
The language of the island dwellers is almost identical to that of the Groningerplatt which is spoken on the Dutch side of the Ems estuary.



3. Landscape and settlement history
 
The Institute for Historic Coastal Research and the Archaeological Service of the East Frisian Landscape have undertaken large scale investigation of the North Sea mudflats.

3.1 Prehistoric and Medieval Times
As a geologically recent landscape, the barrier islands of the Wadden Sea of Lower Saxony are characterised by quaternary deposits. Until the present the island of Borkum is subject to a continual process of expansion and reduction. However, the village of Borkum in particular shows evidence of great spatial continuity.
There is little archaeological evidence for the exact date for settlement on the island of Borkum, but it can be deduced from the wider context of the pre- and early historic development. At the beginning of the Holocene the area of the present North Sea was dry land and the North Sea then lay at the area of today’s Dogger Bank. It can be assumed that the former river marshes of the Ems were accessible to Mesolithic foragers. In the course of the post-glacial temperature rise, the rising waters of the North Sea reached today’s coastal lines around 5.000 B.C. and the barrier islands developed. It is possible therefore that the earliest archaeological sites are buried beneath metres of sediments.
The Neolithic colonisation of the 4th millennium can be deduced from the hinterland. The Funnel Beaker culture (TBK) is represented by a number of sites within the coastal area of Lower Saxony. Again it is possible that there are archaeological sites buried beneath the deposited marsh soils or sands which agglomerated over the millennia.
The Bronze Age is represented by several sites in the Weser-Ems region, including burial mounds and urn cemeteries. The same applies to the Roman Iron Age and the following Dark Ages.
In the 13th century Borkum is first mentioned in a written document in the context of a crusaders’ fleet anchoring off the island. In the 14th century, during the time of the Hanseatic League, because of its highly favourable strategic location, Borkum provided a refuge for pirates (Vitailleurs and later Liekedeler). Between 1400 and 1401 the Hanseatic League got rid of the pirate problem. During this time, about towards the end of the 14th century, Borkum was ruled by East Frisian chieftains until in 1464 the regency passed to the Counts of East Frisia.

3.2 Early Modern Times
The infrastructure of Borkum developed from the 16th century, with the erection of several large buildings, the raising and rebuilding of the church tower as a navigation mark (1576) and the completion of the Old Dyke (1620).
During this time of religious conflict, Borkum was politically dominated by the war between the Netherlands and Spain. In 1569 the Geuex de Mer (“water beggars“), like the Vitailleurs before them, chose Borkum because of its good strategic position as their base for their fight against King Philip II of Spain.
At the beginning of the 17th century the second so-called Upholmdeich (1620) was built. At this date a strong resurgence took place in seafaring after the disruption caused by privateering during the War of Spanish Succession (1701-13). In this period flotsam and jetsam was a welcome source of income. An intensified maritime trade and arctic whaling became important parts of the Borkum economy. Whaling Commanders from Borkum played a very active part in whaling until it declined at the end of the 18th century. One reason for this was the war between the Netherlands and England in which Borkum sided with the Netherlands. Another reason was the dramatic decline of the whale population. The few preserved whalers’ graves on the cemetery by the old lighthouse with their scull-decorated tombstones as well as the fences made of whale jaws, like that at the reformed parsonage (Wilhelm-Bakker-Straße) and at the local museum, provide tangible evidence of this period.
After the death of Prince Carl Edzard in 1744, the last male descendant of the house of Cirksena, Borkum passed to Prussia. From 1780 onwards, following a period of wealth, a recession developed due to the decline in whaling and sea trade.

3.3 Modern Times
At the beginning of the 19th century this economic decline picked up speed. Influencing factors included the French occupation from 1810 to 1813, combined with heavy storm floods and severe sand drifts. The population was reduced by half, dwelling houses were deserted and migration to the mainland set in. The Franzosenschanze as a part of the Napoleon’s continental system from 1809 is a reminder of this period.
During the Peace of Tilsit (1807 to 1810), Borkum first passed to the Dutch Kingdom and then to France. After the defeat of France, Borkum returned to Prussia and at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 it was allocated to the Kingdom of Hannover.
A few years later the Land Hanover rebuilt the church tower (old lighthouse) of Borkum as the first lighthouse (1817). In 1828 the German language replaced Dutch as the official language. During this period the island dwellers again sank into poverty. An economic improvement began after 1830 when more and more merchant families from Emden began to spend their holidays on Borkum. As early as 1844 an association acting as an agent for accommodation was founded and in 1860 there were already c. 500 people who spent their annual holidays on Borkum. Tourism grew to be a new economic factor and led to further extensions to the island infrastructure. In 1879 the Great Lighthouse was constructed, in 1888 the first pier was built, in 1891 canals were constructed and in 1891 the water tower was built.
At this date the Peace of Prague led to the annexation of the Kingdom of Hanover, and Borkum again became Prussian. In 1902 Emperor William II decided to turn Borkum into a sea fortress. The strategically important island was equipped with batteries and bunkers and was dominated for the following 100 years by the military. Since the Second World War an extension of the spa took place.




4. Modern development and planning

From an administrative point of view Borkum, which today belongs to the administrative district Leer, became part of the federal state of Lower Saxony only in 1946 and received its town charter in 1950. The town of Borkum comprises the settlement Borkum in the west of the island as well as the smaller communities of Ostland and Reede (in the south-east by the harbour).
Borkum therefore is subject to the urban and regional land-use planning of Lower Saxony. The basis for this is the Law for Regional Planning and Land Use Regulation (NROG) and its Supplemental Administrative Regulations (VV-NROG) of Lower Saxony. The aims and principles of the land use planning are defined in the Regional Planning Program of the Federal State of Lower Saxony (LROP). The LROP forms the basis of the Regional Planning Program of the Administrative Districts (RROP).
According to the regional planning report of 2005 of the federal office of building and regional planning, Borkum lies in a region in which the development of the population and employment is characterised by a significant growth. Since the middle of the 19th century this growth is based on the expansion of tourism.

4.1 Land use
For a long time the land use on Borkum was dominated by seafaring (trade, whaling, fishing) and agriculture. Another important source of income was the collecting of flotsam and jetsam. In this context it has to be taken into account that next to the periods of economic crisis there were also always periods of prosperity.
Nevertheless the decline of whaling, the changes within sea trade and the decline of the fishing resources because of overfishing led to a massive orientation towards tourism which, since the 1950s, has been the most regionally influential factor. As early as 1850 Borkum had the status of a seaside resort and, compared to the other seaside resorts, it was initially considered to be rather cheap and casual.
After the Second World War Borkum grew to be a centre of tourism which has over 150.000 visitors per season and about 2.2 million overnight stays today. Directly or indirectly, tourism provides almost 80% of the jobs on the island. The percentage of industry in contrast lies at 8.2%. Therefore almost every inhabitant of Borkum is directly or indirectly dependent upon tourism.
Although Borkum, in contrast to the East Frisian Islands, has sufficient farmland at its disposal, agriculture is declining slowly, largely because tourism is an easier source of income. Another problem is the European agricultural policy which is aiming at an optimisation, intensification and rationalisation.

4.2 Settlement development
Settlement development is historically dominated by economic criteria. Since the middle of the 19th century tourism has been the primary factor. In contrast to the other East Frisian Islands, Borkum, especially during the summer, gives the impression of a mainland city with large building complexes. As a licensed North Sea spa the islands has numerous recreational and tourist facilities which dominate the appearance of the town (including one of the largest youth hostels in Europe, swimming pool “Gezeitenland“, boardwalk, a light railway, a museum of local history, lighthouses, etc.).

4.3 Industry and energy
Considering the lack of alternatives, it is probable that tourism is going be the future base for the economy and development of the island. The isolated location of Borkum makes the siting of industrial plants unprofitable in comparison to mainland locations. Additionally, such industrial settlements with their accompanying environmental stress could hardly be co-ordinated with the tourist interests of the island.
The connection of Borkum with the German, respectively European, power and gas supply system is achieved via three 20kV sea cables and two natural gas pipelines. There are also several telecommunication cables linking the island with the mainland, including the first sea cables to England, and later the complete German overseas telegraph network, which have crossed the island since 1856. In 1900 the Reichs-Post und Telegraphenverwaltung (postal and telegraph administration of the empire) set up the first official worldwide radio service on Borkum.
A pilot project for renewable energy on the island, the foundation “Borkum West“ (a wind farm 45km north of Borkum with 12 wind energy plants) has been authorised and the start of construction is scheduled for 2008. The extension of the 65km-long power cable channel leading over Norderney to the mainland is going to cause massive interference into the submarine cultural landscape of the North Sea. In the German Exclusive Economic Zone of the North Sea 968 wind-energy plants have been authorised and for the extension phase 12.410 wind-energy plants are planned. If these plans were realised then the island dwellers are worried about the safety of the ships because instead of the present soft groundings on the sand and mud there will be the danger of hard groundings on the anchorages of these plants. The anchorages act like artificial reefs and are planned in the direct proximity of the main shipping lanes. If the wind farm “Riffgat“, which is planned only 13.5 km from Borkum with 44 180m-high turbines, is constructed then it is going to severely impede the cultural landscape.

4.4 Infrastructure
Traditionally Borkum was accessed by water. Prior to 1850 the ferry only called at Borkum every fortnight. With the growth in tourism a weekly service was set up which alternately called at Greetsiel and Emden. In 1883 a jetty was constructed as part of the extension of the island train, which was completed in 1888.
Today there is a tidal-independent connection between Borkum and Emden and Eemshaven. The traffic to the mainland of Lower Saxony to Emden Außenhaven (outer harbour) which is linked to the European railway network and to the harbour of Eemshaven of Lower Saxony is serviced by car ferries and passenger express ferries. From Borkum you can also reach the neighbouring islands.
With the completion of the railway line Emden-Meppen in 1856 Borkum was integrated into the German railway network. This had an imminent effect on the growth of tourism.
By the end of the 19th century the extension of the island railway line and the harbour terminal began. The impulse for this was a threatening competitive disadvantage in view of the extension of the traffic infrastructure on Norderney. A horse tram was built in 1879 which was first used for the transport of building material for the new lighthouse and was rebuild as the island railway line. When Borkum became a sea fortress the narrow gauge railway was extended from a length of 8km to over 40km, in parts comprising two lines. During the Second World War, next to the “main line” the military constructed several light railway lines which linked the main settlement to the different parts of the fortress.

In the 1970s the importance of the island railway line grew in response to the growth in tourism, and in 1990 it became necessary to add new rolling stock. There is also an hourly bus service from the harbour which almost follows the route of the train. The bus service also links the eastern part of Ostland, which is not serviced by the railway line. Car traffic is restricted on the island.
East of the town of Borkum there is a commercial airport for recreation flights and for smaller passenger aircraft which is regularly serviced from Emden. The flight time of the line Emden-Borkum is about 15 minutes. The airport is also used by private aircraft.



5. Legal and spatial planning aspects

The community of Borkum belongs to the administrative district of Leer in the federal state of Lower Saxony. With regard to land use planning the community is subject to the regional planning of the federal state of Lower Saxony, that is the landscape framework plan and the land use utilisation plan of the community. In addition there is the regional planning concept for the coastal sea of Lower Saxony. The territory of the community ends at the MTHW line (line of the Average High Tide). The coastal sea below the MTHW line is a community-free area. Accordingly, the regional and building plan only applies to the land but not to the marine area.

The current regional plan for the federal state of Lower Saxony (LROP) contains only a few regional planning goals for the marine area. To define suitable areas for wind energy utilisation at sea even within the 12-seamile zone (Riffgat and Nordergründe) an alternation of the regional planning concept of the federal state of Lower Saxony – part II was published. In the Wadden Sea regions of Germany, the Netherlands and Denmark wind energy farms are not permitted. The area of the national park is registered at the EU for the Fauna Flora Habitat guideline (FFH) and for the most part is a bird sanctuary. It belongs to the biotope network system Natura 2000. The main part of the park lies within the territory of the EU water withdrawal guideline. In 1996 the Wadden Sea area within the borders of the national park was recognised by the UNESCO as biosphere reservation in the context of the program “Man and Biosphere“.
The sea lane Ems at the south-western shore of the island is joint German-Dutch contract-territory. Borkum belongs to the area of the Trilateral Wadden Sea Plan (D, NL, DK).



6. Vulnerabilities

6.1 Agriculture
Globalisation has led to more intensive agricultural production and an enlargement of farmsteads. The structural change in agriculture is leading to a loss of historic and cultural landscape features as well as change of use of redundant farm buildings. There is a lack of young people in farming on the island resulting in gradual decline.

6.2 Tourism
Since the 1950’s tourism has become the most influential factor on the island. The numerous recreation facilities need to be maintained, renewed and expanded which can create vulnerable situations for the cultural heritage.

6.3 Industry and energy
The construction of the power cable in the Wadden Sea will cause significant disturbance to the sub water landscape of the North Sea. The construction of extensive windfarms in the North Sea will impact severely on the visual outlook of Borkum.

6.4 Natural resources
The fresh water reserves beneath the island has a diameter of up to 40 metres and is presently protected by the dykes and protective dunes. The drinking water comes from shallow and deep wells which are situated on the Ostland of the island and which tap the freshwater lens which is fed by rain water. Another source of water is the „Waterdelle“. The continuous withdrawal of water, however have caused the upper part to fall dry and this problem is likely to continue.



7. Potentials

7.1 Agriculture
The promotion of cultural landscape management by agriculture production moving towards more high quality products for the local tourist market provides the potential for protection of the historic landscape. Products could be developed which are based on local tradition and at the same time meet ecological and landscape preservation requirements.

7.2 Tourism
For tourism to be successful in a sustainable way a close local, regional and supra-regional cooperation of the official and private parties is required. Good examples are collective marketing companies like „Die Nordsee – Sieben Inseln eine Küste“ (The North Sea – Seven Islands And One Coast) which was founded in 2004. Their aim is to make better use of the existing range of potentials and synergies between the East Frisian Islands and of the region of the North European Wadden Sea. Areas such as the seafaring and agriculture history of the island as well as the history of the tourist industry can be promoted.



8. Sources

Author: Ulf Ickerodt

Borkum 2000 Jahre, 7 v. Chr. -1993 (1993) Hrsg. von der Kurverwaltung Nordseebad Borkum GmbH. Borkum.

125 Jahre Nordseeheilbad Borkum (1975): Hrsg. von der Kurverwaltung Nordseebad Borkum GmbH. Borkum.

Bundesamt für Bauwesen und Raumordnung (BBR; 2005): Raumordnungsbericht 2005. Berichte 21, Bonn.

Beeneken, W. (1987): Rund um den Alten Leuchtturm. Hrsg. vom Heimatverein Borkum e.V. Borkum.

INSEL-WERBUNG (Hrsg.; 2001), „Ditjes un’ Datjes“. Kleine Borkumer Geschichten zum Zeitvertreib. Borkum.

Kappelhoff, B. (1989): Die Fähre zum Festland. Eine kulturhistorische Betrachtung des Borkumverkehrs aus Anlass des 100jährigen Jubiläums der Borkumer Kleinbahn 1988 und der Reederei Aktien-Gesellschaft „Ems“ 1989. Emden.

Raumordungskonzept für das niedersächsische Küstenmeer. Herausgegeben vom Niedersächsisches Ministerium für den ländlichen Raum, Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz - Regierungsvertretung Oldenburg - Landesentwicklung, Raumordnung. Stand 2005.

Schweers, H. (1976): Der Borkumer Dünenexpress. Die Geschichte der Borkumer Kleinbahn und der Nordseebäderdienstes Emden-Borkum. Hrsg. vom Arbeitskreis für Kleinbahngeschichte. Aachen.

Streif, H. (1990): Das ostfriesische Küstengebiet – Nordsee, Inseln, Watten und Marschen. Sammlung Geologischer Führer 57. Berlin und Stuttgart.

Thieme, H. (1997): Älteres Paläolithikum aus dem Gebiet zwischen Weser und Elbe. In: L. Fiedler [Hrsg.], Archäologie der ältesten Kultur in Deutschland. Materialien zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte von Hessen 18, 328–356.

WWW
http://www.stadt-borkum.de Status: 15.03.2007
http://www.freenet-homepage.de/landwirtschaft-borkum/index.htmStatus: 15.03.2007
http://www.nationalpark-wattenmeer.niedersachsen.de/master/C30513393_N6905445_L20_D0_I5912119.html
(Nationalpark beflügelt den Tourismus) Status: 15.03.2007
http://www.schafaufborkum.de Status: 15.03.2007